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Magister militum (Latin for "Master of the Soldiers," plural "magistri militum") was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great. [dubious – discuss] Used alone, the term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, the emperor remaining the supreme commander) of the Empire. In Greek sources, the term is translated either as "strategos" or as "stratelates." Establishment and development of the Command Further information: Late Roman army The title of "magister militum" was created in the 4th century, when Emperor Constantine the Great deprived the praetorian prefects of their military functions. Initially two posts were created, one as head of the foot troops, as the "magister peditum" ("Master of the Infantry"), and one for the more prestigious horse troops, the magister equitum ("Master of the Cavalry"). The latter title had existed since Republican times, as the second-in-command to a Roman dictator. Under Constantine's successors, the title was also established at a territorial level: "magistri peditum" and "magistri equitum" were appointed for every praetorian prefecture ("per Gallias," "per Italiam," "per Illyricum," "per Orientem"), and, in addition, for Thrace and, sometimes, Africa. On occasion, the offices would be combined under a single person, then styled "magister equitum et peditum" or "magister utriusque militiae" ("master of both forces"). As such they were directly in command of the local mobile field army of the "comitatenses," composed mostly of cavalry, which acted as a rapid reaction force. Other "magistri" remained at the immediate disposal of the Emperors, and were termed in "praesenti" ("in the presence" of the Emperor). By the late 4th century, the regional commanders were termed simply "magister militum." In the Western Roman Empire, a "commander-in-chief" evolved with the title of "magister utriusque militiae." This powerful office was often the power behind the throne and was held by Stilicho, Flavius Aetius, Ricimer, and others. In the East, there were two senior generals, who were each appointed to the office of "magister militum praesentalis." During the reign of Emperor Justinian I, with increasing military threats and the expansion of the Eastern Empire, three new posts were created: the "magister militum per Armeniam" in the Armenian and Caucasian provinces, formerly part of the jurisdictionof the "magister militum per Orientem," the "magister militum per Africam" in the reconquered African provinces (534), with a subordinate "magister peditum," and the "magister militum Spaniae" (ca. 562). In the course of the 6th century, internal and external crises in the provinces often necessitated the temporary union of the supreme regional civil authority with the office of the "magister militum." In the establishment of the exarchates of Ravenna andCarthage in 584, this practice found its first permanent expression. Indeed, after the loss of the eastern provinces to the Muslim conquest in the 640s, the surviving field armies and their commanders formed the first "themata." Supreme military commanders sometimes also took this title in early medieval Italy, for example in the Papal States and in Venice, whose Doge claimed to be the successor to the Exarch of Ravenna. List of "magistri militum" Unspecified commands 383-385/8: Flavius Bauto, magister militum under Valentinian II 385/8-394: Arbogast, magister militum under Valentinian II and Eugenius 383–388: Andragathius after 383-408: Flavius Stilicho 422-?: Asterius ? – 480: Ovida "Comes et Magister Utriusque Militiae" 411 – 421: Flavius Constantius 422 - 425: Castinus 425 - 430: Flavius Constantius Felix 431 - 432: Bonifacius 432 - 433: Sebastianus 433 – 454: Flavius Aetius 455 - 456: Avitus & Remistus 456 – 472: Ricimer 472–473: Gundobad 475: Ecdicius Avitus 475–476: Flavius Orestes "per Gallias" 352–355: Claudius Silvanus 362–364: Flavius Iovinus, magister equitum under Julian and Jovian ? – 419: Flavius Gaudentius 425–430: Flavius Aetius 435-439: Litorius 452–458: Agrippinus 458–461: Aegidius 461/462: Agrippinus ? - 472: Bilimer per Hispanias 441-442: Asterius 443: Flavius Merobaudes 446: Vitus "per Illyricum" ?-350: Vetranio, magister peditum under Constans 361: Flavius Iovinus, magister equitum under Julian 365–375: Aequitius, magister utriusquae militiae under Valentinian I 395-? Alaric I 448/9 Agintheus (known from Priscus of Panium to have held office as the latter's embassy proceeded towards the court of Attila). 468–474: Julius Nepos 477–479: Onoulphus 479–481: Sabinianus Magnus 528: Ascum 529–530/1: Mundus (1st time) 532–536: Mundus (2nd time) c. 538: Justin c. 544: Vitalius c. 550: John 568–569/70: Bonus 581–582: Theognis "per Orientem" c. 347: Flavius Eusebius, magister utriusquae militiae 349–359: Ursicinus, magister equitum under Constantius 359–360: Sabinianus, magister equitum under Constantius 363–367: Lupicinus, magister equitum under Jovian and Valens 371–378: Iulius, magister equitum et Peditum under Valens 383: Flavius Richomeres, magister equitum et peditum 383–388: Ellebichus, magister equitum et peditum 392: Eutherius, magister equitum et peditum 393–396: Addaeus, magister equitum et peditum 395/400: Fravitta 433–446: Anatolius 447–451: Zeno 460s: Flavius Ardabur Aspar -469: Flavius Iordanes 469–471: Zeno 483–498: Ioannes Scytha c. 503–505: Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus 505–506: Pharesmanes ?516-?518: Hypatius ?518–529: Diogenianus 520-525/526: Hypatius 527: Libelarius 527–529: Hypatius 529–531: Belisarius 531: Mundus 532–533: Belisarius 540: Buzes 542: Belisarius 543–544: Martinus 549–551: Belisarius 555: Amantius 556: Valerianus 569: Zemarchus 572–573: Marcian 573: Theodorus 574: Eusebius 574/574-577: Justinian 577–582: Maurice 582–583: John Mystacon 584-587/588: Philippicus 588: Priscus 588–589: Philippicus 589–591: Comentiolus 591–603: Narses 603-604 Germanus 604-605 Leontius 605-610 Domentziolus "per Armeniam Valerian Dagisthaeus (?-550) Bessas (550-554) Heraclius the Elder (ca. 595) "per Thracias" 377–378: Flavius Saturninus, magister equitum under Valens[9] 377–378: Traianus, magister peditum under Valens[1] 378: Sebastianus, magister peditum under Valens[1] 380–383: Flavius Saturninus, magister peditum under Theodosius I[1] 392–393: Flavius Stilicho, magister equitum et peditum[1] 412–414: Constans 441: Ioannes the Vandal, magister utriusque militiae[18] 468–474: Armatus 474: Heraclius of Edessa 511: Hypatius 512: Cyril 514: Vitalian 530–533: Chilbudius 550–ca. 554: Artabanes 588: Priscus (1st time) 593: Priscus (2nd time) 593–594: Peter (1st time) 594–ca. 598: Priscus (2nd time) 598–601: Comentiolus 601–602: Peter (2nd time) "Praesentalis" 351–361: Flavius Arbitio, magister equitum under Constantius 361–363: Flavius Nevitta, magister equitum under Julian 363–379: Victor, magister equitum under Valens 366–378: Flavius Arinthaeus, magister peditum under Valens 364–369: Flavius Iovinus, magister equitum under Valentinian I 364–366: Dagalaifus, magister peditum under Valentinian I 367–372: Severus, magister peditum under Valentinian I 369–373: Flavius Theodosius, magister equitum under Valentinian I 375–388: Merobaudes, magister peditum under Valentinian I, Gratian and Magnus Maximus] 388-395: Timasius 394–408: Flavius Stilicho, magister equitum et peditum 399-400: Gainas 400: Fravitta 409: Varanes and Arsacius 419-: Plinta 443–451: Apollonius 450–451: Anatolius 475-477/478: Armatus 485–: Longinus 492–499: John the Hunchback 518–520: Vitalian 520–?: Justinian 528: Leontius 528-529: Phocas 520-538/9: Sittas 536: Germanus 536: Maxentianus 546–548: Artabanes 548/9–552: Suartuas 562: Constantinianus (uncertain) 582: Germanus (uncertain) 585–ca. 586: Comentiolus 626: Bonus (uncertain) "per Africam" Western Empire 373–375: Flavius Theodosius, magister equitum 386–398: Gildo, magister equitum et peditum Eastern Empire 534–536: Solomon 536–539: Germanus 539–544: Solomon 544–546: Sergius 545–546: Areobindus 546: Artabanes 546–552: John Troglita 578–590: Gennadius "Magister Militae" in Byzantine and medieval Italy Venice 8th century: Marcellus 737: Domenico Leoni under Leo III the Isaurian 738: Felice Cornicola under Leo III the Isaurian 739: Theodatus Hypatus under Leo III the Isaurian 741: Ioannes Fabriacius under Leo III the Isaurian 764–787: Mauricius Galba Later, less formal use of the term By the 12th century, the term was being used to describe a man who organized the military force of a political or feudal leader on his behalf. In the "Gesta Herwardi," the hero is several times described as "magister militum" by the man who translated theoriginal Early English account into Latin. It seems possible that the writer of the original version, now lost, thought of him as the 'hereward' – the supervisor of the military force. That this later use of these terms was based on the classical conceptseems clear.

Magister militum (Latin for "Master of the Soldiers," plural "magistri militum") was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great. [dubious – discuss] Used alone, the term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, the emperor remaining the supreme commander) of the Empire. In Greek sources, the term is translated either as "strategos" or as "stratelates."

Establishment and development of the Command
Further information: Late Roman army
The title of "magister militum" was created in the 4th century, when Emperor Constantine the Great deprived the praetorian prefects of their military functions. Initially two posts were created, one as head of the foot troops, as the "magister peditum" ("Master of the Infantry"), and one for the more prestigious horse troops, the magister equitum ("Master of the Cavalry"). The latter title had existed since Republican times, as the second-in-command to a Roman dictator.

Under Constantine's successors, the title was also established at a territorial level: "magistri peditum" and "magistri equitum" were appointed for every praetorian prefecture ("per Gallias," "per Italiam," "per Illyricum," "per Orientem"), and, in addition, for Thrace and, sometimes, Africa. On occasion, the offices would be combined under a single person, then styled "magister equitum et peditum" or "magister utriusque militiae" ("master of both forces").

As such they were directly in command of the local mobile field army of the "comitatenses," composed mostly of cavalry, which acted as a rapid reaction force. Other "magistri" remained at the immediate disposal of the Emperors, and were termed in "praesenti" ("in the presence" of the Emperor). By the late 4th century, the regional commanders were termed simply "magister militum."

In the Western Roman Empire, a "commander-in-chief" evolved with the title of "magister utriusque militiae." This powerful office was often the power behind the throne and was held by Stilicho, Flavius Aetius, Ricimer, and others. In the East, there were two senior generals, who were each appointed to the office of "magister militum praesentalis."

During the reign of Emperor Justinian I, with increasing military threats and the expansion of the Eastern Empire, three new posts were created: the "magister militum per Armeniam" in the Armenian and Caucasian provinces, formerly part of the jurisdictionof the "magister militum per Orientem," the "magister militum per Africam" in the reconquered African provinces (534), with a subordinate "magister peditum," and the "magister militum Spaniae" (ca. 562).

In the course of the 6th century, internal and external crises in the provinces often necessitated the temporary union of the supreme regional civil authority with the office of the "magister militum." In the establishment of the exarchates of Ravenna andCarthage in 584, this practice found its first permanent expression. Indeed, after the loss of the eastern provinces to the Muslim conquest in the 640s, the surviving field armies and their commanders formed the first "themata."

Supreme military commanders sometimes also took this title in early medieval Italy, for example in the Papal States and in Venice, whose Doge claimed to be the successor to the Exarch of Ravenna.

List of "magistri militum"

Unspecified commands
383-385/8: Flavius Bauto, magister militum under Valentinian II
385/8-394: Arbogast, magister militum under Valentinian II and Eugenius
383–388: Andragathius
after 383-408: Flavius Stilicho
422-?: Asterius
? – 480: Ovida

"Comes et Magister Utriusque Militiae"
411 – 421: Flavius Constantius
422 - 425: Castinus
425 - 430: Flavius Constantius Felix
431 - 432: Bonifacius
432 - 433: Sebastianus
433 – 454: Flavius Aetius
455 - 456: Avitus & Remistus
456 – 472: Ricimer
472–473: Gundobad
475: Ecdicius Avitus
475–476: Flavius Orestes

"per Gallias"
352–355: Claudius Silvanus
362–364: Flavius Iovinus, magister equitum under Julian and Jovian
? – 419: Flavius Gaudentius
425–430: Flavius Aetius
435-439: Litorius
452–458: Agrippinus
458–461: Aegidius
461/462: Agrippinus
? - 472: Bilimer

per Hispanias
441-442: Asterius
443: Flavius Merobaudes
446: Vitus

"per Illyricum"
?-350: Vetranio, magister peditum under Constans
361: Flavius Iovinus, magister equitum under Julian
365–375: Aequitius, magister utriusquae militiae under Valentinian I
395-? Alaric I
448/9 Agintheus (known from Priscus of Panium to have held office as the latter's embassy proceeded towards the court of Attila).
468–474: Julius Nepos
477–479: Onoulphus
479–481: Sabinianus Magnus
528: Ascum
529–530/1: Mundus (1st time)
532–536: Mundus (2nd time)
c. 538: Justin
c. 544: Vitalius
c. 550: John
568–569/70: Bonus
581–582: Theognis

"per Orientem"
c. 347: Flavius Eusebius, magister utriusquae militiae
349–359: Ursicinus, magister equitum under Constantius
359–360: Sabinianus, magister equitum under Constantius
363–367: Lupicinus, magister equitum under Jovian and Valens
371–378: Iulius, magister equitum et Peditum under Valens
383: Flavius Richomeres, magister equitum et peditum
383–388: Ellebichus, magister equitum et peditum
392: Eutherius, magister equitum et peditum
393–396: Addaeus, magister equitum et peditum
395/400: Fravitta
433–446: Anatolius
447–451: Zeno
460s: Flavius Ardabur Aspar
-469: Flavius Iordanes
469–471: Zeno
483–498: Ioannes Scytha
c. 503–505: Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus
505–506: Pharesmanes
?516-?518: Hypatius
?518–529: Diogenianus
520-525/526: Hypatius
527: Libelarius
527–529: Hypatius
529–531: Belisarius
531: Mundus
532–533: Belisarius
540: Buzes
542: Belisarius
543–544: Martinus
549–551: Belisarius
555: Amantius
556: Valerianus
569: Zemarchus
572–573: Marcian
573: Theodorus
574: Eusebius
574/574-577: Justinian
577–582: Maurice
582–583: John Mystacon
584-587/588: Philippicus
588: Priscus
588–589: Philippicus
589–591: Comentiolus
591–603: Narses
603-604 Germanus
604-605 Leontius
605-610 Domentziolus

"per Armeniam
Valerian
Dagisthaeus (?-550)
Bessas (550-554)
Heraclius the Elder (ca. 595)

"per Thracias"
377–378: Flavius Saturninus, magister equitum under Valens[9]
377–378: Traianus, magister peditum under Valens[1]
378: Sebastianus, magister peditum under Valens[1]
380–383: Flavius Saturninus, magister peditum under Theodosius I[1]
392–393: Flavius Stilicho, magister equitum et peditum[1]
412–414: Constans
441: Ioannes the Vandal, magister utriusque militiae[18]
468–474: Armatus
474: Heraclius of Edessa
511: Hypatius
512: Cyril
514: Vitalian
530–533: Chilbudius
550–ca. 554: Artabanes
588: Priscus (1st time)
593: Priscus (2nd time)
593–594: Peter (1st time)
594–ca. 598: Priscus (2nd time)
598–601: Comentiolus
601–602: Peter (2nd time)

"Praesentalis"
351–361: Flavius Arbitio, magister equitum under Constantius
361–363: Flavius Nevitta, magister equitum under Julian
363–379: Victor, magister equitum under Valens
366–378: Flavius Arinthaeus, magister peditum under Valens
364–369: Flavius Iovinus, magister equitum under Valentinian I
364–366: Dagalaifus, magister peditum under Valentinian I
367–372: Severus, magister peditum under Valentinian I
369–373: Flavius Theodosius, magister equitum under Valentinian I
375–388: Merobaudes, magister peditum under Valentinian I, Gratian and Magnus Maximus]
388-395: Timasius
394–408: Flavius Stilicho, magister equitum et peditum
399-400: Gainas
400: Fravitta
409: Varanes and Arsacius
419-: Plinta
443–451: Apollonius
450–451: Anatolius
475-477/478: Armatus
485–: Longinus
492–499: John the Hunchback
518–520: Vitalian
520–?: Justinian
528: Leontius
528-529: Phocas
520-538/9: Sittas
536: Germanus
536: Maxentianus
546–548: Artabanes
548/9–552: Suartuas
562: Constantinianus (uncertain)
582: Germanus (uncertain)
585–ca. 586: Comentiolus
626: Bonus (uncertain)

"per Africam"

Western Empire
373–375: Flavius Theodosius, magister equitum
386–398: Gildo, magister equitum et peditum

Eastern Empire
534–536: Solomon
536–539: Germanus
539–544: Solomon
544–546: Sergius
545–546: Areobindus
546: Artabanes
546–552: John Troglita
578–590: Gennadius

"Magister Militae" in Byzantine and medieval Italy
Venice
8th century: Marcellus
737: Domenico Leoni under Leo III the Isaurian
738: Felice Cornicola under Leo III the Isaurian
739: Theodatus Hypatus under Leo III the Isaurian
741: Ioannes Fabriacius under Leo III the Isaurian
764–787: Mauricius Galba

Later, less formal use of the term
By the 12th century, the term was being used to describe a man who organized the military force of a political or feudal leader on his behalf. In the "Gesta Herwardi," the hero is several times described as "magister militum" by the man who translated theoriginal Early English account into Latin. It seems possible that the writer of the original version, now lost, thought of him as the 'hereward' – the supervisor of the military force. That this later use of these terms was based on the classical conceptseems clear.